Historic Heresies of the Christian Faith
> Throughout the history of Christianity, the Church has encountered numerous theological controversies that have challenged its understanding of core doctrines. These disputes often led to the categorization of certain beliefs as heresies, which were then addressed by Church councils and synods. Here, we explore historic heresies categorized by topic—specifically focusing on the nature of Christ, the nature of God, and the doctrine of salvation. Each heresy is sorted by date within its category, detailing the nature of the controversy, the year it was resolved, and the determination of the Church.
Nature of Christ Heresies:
– Arianism (318-381 AD)
- Nature of Controversy: Arianism questioned whether Jesus Christ was divine or a created being.
- Resolved: 381 AD, First Council of Constantinople.
- Determination: The council affirmed that Jesus Christ is divine and consubstantial (one in being) with God the Father.
– Apollinarianism (361-381 AD)
- Nature of Controversy: Apollinarianism posited that Jesus had a divine mind and spirit but not a human one.
- Resolved: 381 AD, First Council of Constantinople.
- Determination: The council declared that Jesus Christ was fully human, including having a human mind and spirit, as well as fully divine.
– Nestorianism (428-451 AD)
- Nature of Controversy: Nestorianism suggested that Jesus existed as two separate persons rather than one.
- Resolved: 451 AD, Council of Chalcedon.
- Determination: The council taught that Jesus is one person in two natures, fully God and fully human, without confusion or division.
– Eutychianism (431-451 AD)
- Nature of Controversy: Eutychianism argued that Christ’s human nature was absorbed by His divine nature.
- Resolved: 451 AD, Council of Chalcedon.
- Determination: The council confirmed that Jesus Christ has two distinct natures, divine and human, united in one person.
– Monothelitism (Emerged in the 7th century)
- Nature of Controversy: Monothelitism taught that Jesus Christ had two natures, one divine and one human, but only a single will or energy.
- Resolved: Condemned by the Third Council of Constantinople in 681 AD.
- Determination: The council affirmed the doctrine of dyothelitism, teaching that Jesus Christ possesses two wills, divine and human, in accordance with His two natures, and that these two wills are in perfect harmony but not mixed or confused.
Nature of God Heresies:
– Modalism (3rd Century)
- Nature of Controversy: Modalism claimed that God is one person who has revealed Himself in three different modes or forms, rather than three distinct persons.
- Resolved: Condemned in various synods throughout the 3rd century.
- Determination: The Church affirmed the doctrine of the Trinity, stating that God exists eternally as three co-equal and co-eternal persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
– Pneumatomachianism (306-381 AD)
- Nature of Controversy: Pneumatomachianism denied the full divinity of the Holy Spirit.
- Resolved: 381 AD, First Council of Constantinople.
- Determination: The Holy Spirit was affirmed as divine and co-equal with the Father and the Son.
Salvation Heresies:
– Pelagianism (411-418 AD)
- Nature of Controversy: Pelagianism held that original sin did not taint human nature and that mortal will is still capable of choosing good or evil without divine aid.
- Resolved: 418 AD, Councils of Carthage and Ephesus.
- Determination: The Church condemned Pelagianism, teaching that original sin affects all people and that divine grace is necessary for salvation.
– Gnosticism
- Nature of Controversy: Gnosticism, a diverse movement in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, held that salvation was achieved through secret knowledge (gnosis) and that the material world was created by a lesser divinity.
- Resolved: Various Church Fathers, including Irenaeus and Tertullian, refuted Gnostic teachings throughout the 2nd and 3rd centuries, though no single council resolved the issue.
- Determination: The heresy was determined through scriptural exegesis and the development of the New Testament canon, which excluded Gnostic texts.
– Donatism
- Nature of Controversy: Donatism, arising in the 4th century, contended that the validity of sacraments depended on the moral purity of the clergy administering them.
- Resolved: The Council of Arles in 314 AD and later the Council of Carthage in 411 AD rejected Donatism.
- Determination: The Councils affirmed that the efficacy of sacraments was based on God’s grace and not on the personal virtue of clergy.
– Semi-Pelagianism (426-529 AD)
- Nature of Controversy: Semi-Pelagianism taught that the initial steps toward salvation could be made by the human will and that grace responded to human initiative.
- Resolved: 529 AD, Second Council of Orange.
- Determination: The council rejected Semi-Pelagianism, affirming that the beginning of salvation is by the grace of God through faith, not by human works.
Ecclesiological Heresies:
Ecclesiological heresies involve the nature and structure of the Church.
– Montanism
- Nature of Controversy: Montanism, founded by Montanus in the 2nd century, was a prophetic movement claiming new revelations from the Holy Spirit that superseded the authority of the Church and Scripture.
- Resolved: The movement was condemned by various synods in the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries.
- Determination: The Church maintained that revelation was complete with the Apostolic Age and that Montanism’s new prophecies were not consistent with established doctrine.
– Iconoclasm
- Nature of Controversy: Iconoclasm, influential during the 8th and 9th centuries, involved the rejection and destruction of religious images, as some believed their veneration was a form of idolatry.
- Resolved: The Second Council of Nicaea in 787 AD resolved the controversy, affirming the veneration (not worship) of icons.
- Determination: The Council differentiated between veneration of images and the worship due to God alone, allowing for the use of icons in devotion.
Conclusion
The resolution of these heresies was essential for the development of Christian orthodoxy. Each heresy prompted the Church to clarify its teachings, leading to a more precise articulation of the doctrines that have shaped Christianity. These historic decisions continue to influence Christian theology and practice to this day.
